The Tokugawa government had financial problems. Yoshimune became the eighth shogun in 1716, and began to reform the policy. One of the biggest changes was frugality. He himself reduced his expenditures, and ordered all other officials to cut the cost of departments. The townspeople were also forced to lower their standard of living. They were not allowed to wear showy and luxurious garments.
The most crucial shift was the practice of tattooing as a form of punishment in 1720 (Nakano; 199u, Tamabayashi; 1956, Van Gulik; 1982), which replaced the amputation of nose and ears. Tattooing as punishment did not pertain to the samurai class (Van Gulik, 1982). According to Yoshimune's code, robbers as well as murderers were sentenced to the death. Crimes such as extortion, swindling and fraud were punished by tattooing. The criminals were tattooed with a black ring around an arm for each offense, or with a Japanese character on the forehead.
The tattoo became a mark of punishment, used by the authorities to ostracize the outlaws from society. While the purpose of this penalty was to identify criminals and repeat offenders, tattooing as punishment became a vicious circle. The tattooed criminals were ostracized by society throughout their whole lives. Some of them abandoned all hope, and sank to a level of despair and a cycle of crimes. Consequently, the penal system formed a solitary minority group, called eta class, the social outcasts.For this reason, ordinary people became afraid of tattooed people. The people with the penal tattoos often used the records incised on the skin for illicit purposes. They hardly rebuilt their trust in society. Some of them abandoned themselves to despair and repeated crimes. This phenomenon made other people feel frightened and they came to see any tattooed person as a criminal or evil. Therefore, showing tattoos was perceived as a threat to society.
Eventually, the custom of penal tattooing was abolished in 1870 after being practiced for 150 years.
Saturday, March 29, 2008
The Vow Tattoo
By : KHISOBORI
The term, irebokuro means tattoo, and was used in the Edo period. Ire or ireru, means to insert, and bokuro or hokuro is a beauty spot. In the early Edo period, tattoo was like a dot, not pictorial yet.Irebokuro originated among the yujos, or legal prostitutes. The custom of irebokuro probably parallels the establishment of legal prostitution (Tamabayashi, 1956).According to Tamabayashi (1956), the major group of people who accepted irebokuro was the yujos, and the second was the geishas. Tattooing was rare among ordinary girls. On the other hand, in the case of the male population, the majority was the yujo or the geisha's clients or womanizers. Tattooed priests and youngsters were sometimes seen.
Tamabayashi (1956) describes one of the old patterns of irebokuro: a man and a woman hold their hands together, and get a mole-like tattoo on each hand where the tip of the thumb reached. Irebokuro was a reminder for lovers, and showed a vow of eternal love. It is said that some yujos wore tattoos of their lover's name and the Japanese character for life (inochi). It symbolized the strength of their pledge of love. Tamabayashi also mentions irebokuro in homosexuality between priests and young boys. These tattoos were also called kishobori, the vow tattoo.The yujos were likely to choose to be tattooed on the arm, especially the inside of the arm and near the armpit, not the forearm (Tamabayashi, 1956). Their tattoos probably meant secret affairs, forbidden love or personal desires. The purpose of the yujo's tattoos was one of serious promise, or nuptial proof, or eternal love, and the pledge of the heart and soul towards sincere love (Tamabayashi, 1956:24).For others, the irebokuro was perhaps just a tool to please and keep their customers, and thus to succeed as a highest ranked courtesan.
The geishas and the yujos made up strange customs to keep their clients. Several authors (Fujimoto; 1915, Tamabayashi; 1956, Seigle; 1993, Van Gulik; 1982) cite examples of the geisha's behavior.
1. A woman gave a written pledge to her lover.
2. She tattooed the lover's name in her arm.
3. She cut her hair.
4. She cut her little finger.
5. She tore off the nail of one of her fingers.
6. She stabbed her elbow or thigh (Fujimoto, 1915: 129).
In the literature of the Edo period, the practice of the pledge letter, tattooing, finger-cutting, hair-cutting, nail-tearing are often described (Seigle; 1993, Tamabayashi; 1956, Van Gulik; 1982). The purpose of the pledge letter was to get a few drops of blood from both the man and the woman (Seigle, 1993).Tattooing was similar to the pledge letter. Many yujos and geishas tattooed themselves to please their customers.
However, tattooing was considered inelegant and indiscreet among high-ranking geisha, and they tended to avoid it (Seigle, 1993). Some customers insisted on it and the geisha were forced to submit. At the same time, they had to know how to erase tattoos. The courtesans cauterized tattoos with moxa (dried herb) and fire (Seigle; 1993, Tamabayashi; 1956,Van Gulik; 1982). The tattoo could be the cause of trouble if the courtesans had several different customers. There are records of the yujos and the geishas repeatedly having to tattoo over or remove old tattoos whenever their customers changed.Finger and hair-cutting, and nail-tearing were more serious tokens than tattooing one's name because they were obviously visible. The extreme form of love was shinju, double suicide. Many lovers committed double suicides, and this phenomenon peaked from the Genroku era (1688-1703) to 1720's (Seigle, 1993). By the late Tokugawa era, kishobori was no longer popular.
The term, irebokuro means tattoo, and was used in the Edo period. Ire or ireru, means to insert, and bokuro or hokuro is a beauty spot. In the early Edo period, tattoo was like a dot, not pictorial yet.Irebokuro originated among the yujos, or legal prostitutes. The custom of irebokuro probably parallels the establishment of legal prostitution (Tamabayashi, 1956).According to Tamabayashi (1956), the major group of people who accepted irebokuro was the yujos, and the second was the geishas. Tattooing was rare among ordinary girls. On the other hand, in the case of the male population, the majority was the yujo or the geisha's clients or womanizers. Tattooed priests and youngsters were sometimes seen.
Tamabayashi (1956) describes one of the old patterns of irebokuro: a man and a woman hold their hands together, and get a mole-like tattoo on each hand where the tip of the thumb reached. Irebokuro was a reminder for lovers, and showed a vow of eternal love. It is said that some yujos wore tattoos of their lover's name and the Japanese character for life (inochi). It symbolized the strength of their pledge of love. Tamabayashi also mentions irebokuro in homosexuality between priests and young boys. These tattoos were also called kishobori, the vow tattoo.The yujos were likely to choose to be tattooed on the arm, especially the inside of the arm and near the armpit, not the forearm (Tamabayashi, 1956). Their tattoos probably meant secret affairs, forbidden love or personal desires. The purpose of the yujo's tattoos was one of serious promise, or nuptial proof, or eternal love, and the pledge of the heart and soul towards sincere love (Tamabayashi, 1956:24).For others, the irebokuro was perhaps just a tool to please and keep their customers, and thus to succeed as a highest ranked courtesan.
The geishas and the yujos made up strange customs to keep their clients. Several authors (Fujimoto; 1915, Tamabayashi; 1956, Seigle; 1993, Van Gulik; 1982) cite examples of the geisha's behavior.
1. A woman gave a written pledge to her lover.
2. She tattooed the lover's name in her arm.
3. She cut her hair.
4. She cut her little finger.
5. She tore off the nail of one of her fingers.
6. She stabbed her elbow or thigh (Fujimoto, 1915: 129).
In the literature of the Edo period, the practice of the pledge letter, tattooing, finger-cutting, hair-cutting, nail-tearing are often described (Seigle; 1993, Tamabayashi; 1956, Van Gulik; 1982). The purpose of the pledge letter was to get a few drops of blood from both the man and the woman (Seigle, 1993).Tattooing was similar to the pledge letter. Many yujos and geishas tattooed themselves to please their customers.
However, tattooing was considered inelegant and indiscreet among high-ranking geisha, and they tended to avoid it (Seigle, 1993). Some customers insisted on it and the geisha were forced to submit. At the same time, they had to know how to erase tattoos. The courtesans cauterized tattoos with moxa (dried herb) and fire (Seigle; 1993, Tamabayashi; 1956,Van Gulik; 1982). The tattoo could be the cause of trouble if the courtesans had several different customers. There are records of the yujos and the geishas repeatedly having to tattoo over or remove old tattoos whenever their customers changed.Finger and hair-cutting, and nail-tearing were more serious tokens than tattooing one's name because they were obviously visible. The extreme form of love was shinju, double suicide. Many lovers committed double suicides, and this phenomenon peaked from the Genroku era (1688-1703) to 1720's (Seigle, 1993). By the late Tokugawa era, kishobori was no longer popular.
Japanese Tattooing from the Past to the Present
Japanese Tattooing from the Past to the Present
by Mieko Yamada (© 2000 by Mieko Yamada)
The Jomon to the pre-Edo period
The origin of tattooing in Japan has been traced back to the Jomon period (10,000 B. C. ~ 300 B. C.). Jomon means "pattern of rope." Many ceramic pots with markings of rope were found in that period. Clay figurines produced in this period are called dogu. Scholars consider that some dogus show tattoo-like markings on their faces and bodies. The oldestdogus whose faces have a depiction of tattooing were found near Osaka in 1977. They are estimated to date from dated the fifth century B. C. (Richie,1980).During the Yayoiperiod (300 B. C. ~ 300 A. D.) clay figurines with tattoo markings were also found (Yoshioka, 1996).
The custom of tattooing in Japan is described in the third century Chinesehistory, Gishiwajinden,which is the oldest record mentioning Japan. Japan is called Wa, and the custom of tattooing is mentioned in this text:
The men of Wa tattoo their faces and paint their bodies with designs. They are fond of diving for fish and shells. Long ago they decorated their bodies in order to protect themselves from large fish. Later these designs became ornamental. Body painting differs among the various tribes. The position and size of the designs vary according to the rank of individuals.... They smear their bodies with pink and scarlet just as we Chinese use powder (Tsunoda and Goodrich, cited by Dalby, 1993: 22).
The Kofun period (300 A. D.- 600 A. D.) came after the Yayoi era. The word kofun means an old tomb. In this period, hilly tombs in many places were made, and the clay figures in the shape of dolls, horses and huts were also found in the tombs. The clay figures are called haniwa, which is the counterpart of dogu in the Jomon era. Markings on some haniwaare regarded as patterns of tattoos.
In 622 A. D., an envoy of China recorded the custom of Japanese tattooing in Zuisho. There is a section, "Ryukyu kokuden" in it, and the practice of tattooing among the Ryukyu women is described. The Ryukyu islands are today in Okinawa prefecture, the southern most part of Japan. When it was an independent country it was threatened by the rule of China and Japan.
This record, Zuisho, shows Okinawa and Taiwan already established trading in those days. However, it is not confirmed whetherRyukyu in Zuisho itself refers to Okinawa or Taiwan. Many scholars state that the design of Okinawan tattoo is similar to the tattooing style in a part of aboriginal Taiwanese (Yoshioka, 1996). The Okinawan tattoo may be connected not only with the custom of tattooing in Taiwan but also with South East Asia.
It was not until the eighth century that the first Japanese printed books appeared. The Kojiki (712 A. D.) mentions that there are two types of tattoos. One is a mark of distinction on a man of very high status, and the other is to identify criminals (McCallum, 1988). Later, the Chronicles of Japan, the Nihonshoki, was complied in 720 A.D. According to the Nihonshoki, a person named Azumi no Murajihamako was tattooed as punishment for treason. This was an example of the punitive application of tattooing.McCallum (1988) summarizes the practice of Japanese tattooing during the Kofun period. In the early Kofun period, the tattoo persisted as a socially acceptable practice. However, it seems to have acquired negative associations, perhaps from the middle of the period (McCallum, 1988).
Between 600 A.D. and 1600, there is little literature regarding the custom of tattooing. Tamabayashi (1956) and Van Gulik (1982) state the Joei Code issued in 1232 mentions penal tattooing. According to some scholars (Richie; 1980, Van Gulik; 1982), tattooing was used to mark and distinguish the social outcasts. Consequently, the people who were tattooed as punishment formed minority groups, called eta (the euphemism of village people) and hinin (non-humans).
Iizawa (1973) and Tamabayashi (1956) report that the custom of tattooing is also found among samurai warriors in the sixteenth century. In certain areas, the samurai had tattoos for identification.
Soldiers wore armor and had other identifying belongings, of course, but scavengers often stripped dead bodies on a battlefield , which made identification difficult. Tattoos offered certain identification
(Iizawa, 1973; 252).
During the Tensho era (1573~1591), the samurai soldiers of the Satsuma clan (now Kagoshima region) were tattooed with Japanese characters on the upper arms. However, this information is not clearly confirmed.
Tattooing in the Ainu and the Ryukyu
Ryukyu tattooing was first mentioned in 1461. However, some scholars consider the description of tattooing in the Zuisho of 622 to be the oldest record of the Ryukyu tattoo even though this information is still speculative (Yoshioka, 1996).The oldest reports of Ainu tattoos were recorded by an Italian researcher, Girolamo de Angelis in 1612 and 1621 (Yoshioka, 1996). The Ainus were tattooed on the face as well as the back of the hands and arms. The tattoos were done around the lips, cheeks, the forehead or the eyebrows.There are several motivations for Ainu tattooing: cosmetic purposes, tribal purposes, sexual maturity, religious purposes and adornment. Although only the Ainu women's tattoos were mentioned in most cases, it was also reported that the men were tattooed in some regions (Takayama; 1969, Yoshioka; 1996).
Ainu girls were first tattooed when they were 10 to 13 years old. Some women started when they were 5 or 6 years old. Their tattoos were completed by the time they reached marriageable age.The patterns of the Ainu tattoos are related to their tribal clothing.
Tosabayashi (1948) presents the study on the patterns of the Ainu tattoo in detail. He mentions that the patterns of the tattoos are similar to the chastity belt that the Ainu women wore, and that Ainu tattoos symbolize virtue or purity. The Ainu tattoo is also used for protection from the atrocities committed by other tribes.
The Ryukyu tattoos, on the other hand, were done on only the back of the hands, including the fingers, the wrists and the knuckles. There are no examples offacial tattoo (Glacken, 1955). Tattooing is not practiced in every Ryukyu island. In some parts, both men and women got tattooed, but in others, only women had tattoos. In other parts of Ryukyu, no one was tattooed. The age at which tattooing began was different, depending on the areas of the Ryukyu islands or generation (Yoshioka, 1996).The Ryukyu tattooing symbolized religious beliefs, sexual maturity, indication of marriage, body adornment, distinction of sex, and tribal customs. Glacken (1955) reports that the purpose of the Ryukyu women's tattooing was to prevent being carried off to brothels in Japan. Kidnappings were frequent occurrences in the Ryukyu history and the Ryukyu people knew that the Japanese disliked tattooed women (Haring, 1969).
There are examples of therapeutic tattooing among the Ainu and the Ryukyu. It was believed that tattoos would heal the affected parts (Yoshioka, 1996). This is different from the medical tattoos, but more likely to be magical. The Edo period (1600 -1867)
Socio-cultural Background
Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first shogun of the Edo period, unified the country and set political power in Edo (the present Tokyo). He set the rigid social system and divided it into four classes, shi (samurai warriors), no (peasants), ko (artisans) and sho (merchants). These ranks were based on Confucianism. Samurai warriors were the highest rank. Peasants and artisans were a higher status than merchants, because they contributed to the country as producers. In those days, taxes were paid with the staple food of rice. Therefore, the peasants were seen as second class citizens.Ieyasu continued to issue strict regulations, stressing religious thoughts. In 1614, he banned Christianity. Ieyasu's proclamation against Christians clearly states that Japan is the country of the gods. Interestingly, Ieyasu also quotes the Confucian doctrine. Kung-fu-tze also said: "Body, hair and skin we have received from our father and mother; not to injure them is the beginning of filial piety. To preserve one's body is to revere god"
(Ballu, 1945: 131). Filial piety is one of the important elements in the Confucian philosophical thoughts, and consists of filial duties toward parents: obedience, responsibility, and loyalty. It is the foundation of feudal ethics. Furthermore, Neo-Confucian philosopher, Chu Hsi's system was later guided by Hayashi Razan, one of the famous scholars of the early Edo era. Chu Hsi emphasizes human relationships in the Five Human Relations: between father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, older and younger brother, and friends (Sansom, 1963).
The Buke Shohatto (Rules for the Military Houses) was announced in 1615, and was the fundamental code of the samurai. It consists of thirteen clauses, and strictly mentions the way of the samurai in daily life from education to marriage, including a dress code. The tenth clause in the Buke Shohatto states: "All costumes and ornaments are to be appropriate to the wearer's rank, and not extravagant in colour or pattern (Sansom, 1963:8). The restrictions about costumes in the Edo period were very strict. Ieyasu
issued the orders regarding clothing repeatedly during his regime. As for commoners, the dress code was also established in detail (Dalby; 1983 and 1993, Minnich; 1963, Sansom; 1963, Tanida and Koike; 1989).
Following the development of the samurai culture in the city of Edo, the population of common people also grew in both rural and urban areas. Merchants, the lowest class, gradually gained power by the eighteenth century and this led to the growth of the economy. The rich merchants were often employed by government officials and became richer than the samurai.Thanks to the economic prosperity, the standard of living among townspeople was improving. They enjoyed a peak of material wealth and a flourishing of the arts.
Considered in retrospect, the most attractive feature of this era is the gaiety of colour and pattern in clothing and decoration which reflected the mood of the times. It is an especially interesting aspect of the social history of Japan that the rise of a prosperous class of shopkeepers and craftsmen was accompanied by a lively creative phase in the arts (Sansom, 1963: 153).
This is called the Genroku era (1688-1704), in other words, ukiyo, or
"floating world." The word ukiyo stems from the Buddhist expression, and originally means "the dark, shifting world of existence, or transience of life." As society changed through the centuries, the meaning became "floating world." The novelist Ryoi initially used this term in his work, Ukiyo Monogatari,"Tales of the Floating World" (Williams, 1983). He describes the life in the early Edo era, that is, the ukiyo world.
The wealthy townspeople surrounding him were not worried about future salvation but rather enjoyed their materialistic, temporal existences and those pleasures appealing directly to the senses. They lived for the moment : "the fleeting moment" (Williams, 1983: 1).Many prominent art works were produced, and chonin bunka, culture of the townspeople, was fully developed in this period.
by Mieko Yamada (© 2000 by Mieko Yamada)
The Jomon to the pre-Edo period
The origin of tattooing in Japan has been traced back to the Jomon period (10,000 B. C. ~ 300 B. C.). Jomon means "pattern of rope." Many ceramic pots with markings of rope were found in that period. Clay figurines produced in this period are called dogu. Scholars consider that some dogus show tattoo-like markings on their faces and bodies. The oldestdogus whose faces have a depiction of tattooing were found near Osaka in 1977. They are estimated to date from dated the fifth century B. C. (Richie,1980).During the Yayoiperiod (300 B. C. ~ 300 A. D.) clay figurines with tattoo markings were also found (Yoshioka, 1996).
The custom of tattooing in Japan is described in the third century Chinesehistory, Gishiwajinden,which is the oldest record mentioning Japan. Japan is called Wa, and the custom of tattooing is mentioned in this text:
The men of Wa tattoo their faces and paint their bodies with designs. They are fond of diving for fish and shells. Long ago they decorated their bodies in order to protect themselves from large fish. Later these designs became ornamental. Body painting differs among the various tribes. The position and size of the designs vary according to the rank of individuals.... They smear their bodies with pink and scarlet just as we Chinese use powder (Tsunoda and Goodrich, cited by Dalby, 1993: 22).
The Kofun period (300 A. D.- 600 A. D.) came after the Yayoi era. The word kofun means an old tomb. In this period, hilly tombs in many places were made, and the clay figures in the shape of dolls, horses and huts were also found in the tombs. The clay figures are called haniwa, which is the counterpart of dogu in the Jomon era. Markings on some haniwaare regarded as patterns of tattoos.
In 622 A. D., an envoy of China recorded the custom of Japanese tattooing in Zuisho. There is a section, "Ryukyu kokuden" in it, and the practice of tattooing among the Ryukyu women is described. The Ryukyu islands are today in Okinawa prefecture, the southern most part of Japan. When it was an independent country it was threatened by the rule of China and Japan.
This record, Zuisho, shows Okinawa and Taiwan already established trading in those days. However, it is not confirmed whetherRyukyu in Zuisho itself refers to Okinawa or Taiwan. Many scholars state that the design of Okinawan tattoo is similar to the tattooing style in a part of aboriginal Taiwanese (Yoshioka, 1996). The Okinawan tattoo may be connected not only with the custom of tattooing in Taiwan but also with South East Asia.
It was not until the eighth century that the first Japanese printed books appeared. The Kojiki (712 A. D.) mentions that there are two types of tattoos. One is a mark of distinction on a man of very high status, and the other is to identify criminals (McCallum, 1988). Later, the Chronicles of Japan, the Nihonshoki, was complied in 720 A.D. According to the Nihonshoki, a person named Azumi no Murajihamako was tattooed as punishment for treason. This was an example of the punitive application of tattooing.McCallum (1988) summarizes the practice of Japanese tattooing during the Kofun period. In the early Kofun period, the tattoo persisted as a socially acceptable practice. However, it seems to have acquired negative associations, perhaps from the middle of the period (McCallum, 1988).
Between 600 A.D. and 1600, there is little literature regarding the custom of tattooing. Tamabayashi (1956) and Van Gulik (1982) state the Joei Code issued in 1232 mentions penal tattooing. According to some scholars (Richie; 1980, Van Gulik; 1982), tattooing was used to mark and distinguish the social outcasts. Consequently, the people who were tattooed as punishment formed minority groups, called eta (the euphemism of village people) and hinin (non-humans).
Iizawa (1973) and Tamabayashi (1956) report that the custom of tattooing is also found among samurai warriors in the sixteenth century. In certain areas, the samurai had tattoos for identification.
Soldiers wore armor and had other identifying belongings, of course, but scavengers often stripped dead bodies on a battlefield , which made identification difficult. Tattoos offered certain identification
(Iizawa, 1973; 252).
During the Tensho era (1573~1591), the samurai soldiers of the Satsuma clan (now Kagoshima region) were tattooed with Japanese characters on the upper arms. However, this information is not clearly confirmed.
Tattooing in the Ainu and the Ryukyu
Ryukyu tattooing was first mentioned in 1461. However, some scholars consider the description of tattooing in the Zuisho of 622 to be the oldest record of the Ryukyu tattoo even though this information is still speculative (Yoshioka, 1996).The oldest reports of Ainu tattoos were recorded by an Italian researcher, Girolamo de Angelis in 1612 and 1621 (Yoshioka, 1996). The Ainus were tattooed on the face as well as the back of the hands and arms. The tattoos were done around the lips, cheeks, the forehead or the eyebrows.There are several motivations for Ainu tattooing: cosmetic purposes, tribal purposes, sexual maturity, religious purposes and adornment. Although only the Ainu women's tattoos were mentioned in most cases, it was also reported that the men were tattooed in some regions (Takayama; 1969, Yoshioka; 1996).
Ainu girls were first tattooed when they were 10 to 13 years old. Some women started when they were 5 or 6 years old. Their tattoos were completed by the time they reached marriageable age.The patterns of the Ainu tattoos are related to their tribal clothing.
Tosabayashi (1948) presents the study on the patterns of the Ainu tattoo in detail. He mentions that the patterns of the tattoos are similar to the chastity belt that the Ainu women wore, and that Ainu tattoos symbolize virtue or purity. The Ainu tattoo is also used for protection from the atrocities committed by other tribes.
The Ryukyu tattoos, on the other hand, were done on only the back of the hands, including the fingers, the wrists and the knuckles. There are no examples offacial tattoo (Glacken, 1955). Tattooing is not practiced in every Ryukyu island. In some parts, both men and women got tattooed, but in others, only women had tattoos. In other parts of Ryukyu, no one was tattooed. The age at which tattooing began was different, depending on the areas of the Ryukyu islands or generation (Yoshioka, 1996).The Ryukyu tattooing symbolized religious beliefs, sexual maturity, indication of marriage, body adornment, distinction of sex, and tribal customs. Glacken (1955) reports that the purpose of the Ryukyu women's tattooing was to prevent being carried off to brothels in Japan. Kidnappings were frequent occurrences in the Ryukyu history and the Ryukyu people knew that the Japanese disliked tattooed women (Haring, 1969).
There are examples of therapeutic tattooing among the Ainu and the Ryukyu. It was believed that tattoos would heal the affected parts (Yoshioka, 1996). This is different from the medical tattoos, but more likely to be magical. The Edo period (1600 -1867)
Socio-cultural Background
Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first shogun of the Edo period, unified the country and set political power in Edo (the present Tokyo). He set the rigid social system and divided it into four classes, shi (samurai warriors), no (peasants), ko (artisans) and sho (merchants). These ranks were based on Confucianism. Samurai warriors were the highest rank. Peasants and artisans were a higher status than merchants, because they contributed to the country as producers. In those days, taxes were paid with the staple food of rice. Therefore, the peasants were seen as second class citizens.Ieyasu continued to issue strict regulations, stressing religious thoughts. In 1614, he banned Christianity. Ieyasu's proclamation against Christians clearly states that Japan is the country of the gods. Interestingly, Ieyasu also quotes the Confucian doctrine. Kung-fu-tze also said: "Body, hair and skin we have received from our father and mother; not to injure them is the beginning of filial piety. To preserve one's body is to revere god"
(Ballu, 1945: 131). Filial piety is one of the important elements in the Confucian philosophical thoughts, and consists of filial duties toward parents: obedience, responsibility, and loyalty. It is the foundation of feudal ethics. Furthermore, Neo-Confucian philosopher, Chu Hsi's system was later guided by Hayashi Razan, one of the famous scholars of the early Edo era. Chu Hsi emphasizes human relationships in the Five Human Relations: between father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, older and younger brother, and friends (Sansom, 1963).
The Buke Shohatto (Rules for the Military Houses) was announced in 1615, and was the fundamental code of the samurai. It consists of thirteen clauses, and strictly mentions the way of the samurai in daily life from education to marriage, including a dress code. The tenth clause in the Buke Shohatto states: "All costumes and ornaments are to be appropriate to the wearer's rank, and not extravagant in colour or pattern (Sansom, 1963:8). The restrictions about costumes in the Edo period were very strict. Ieyasu
issued the orders regarding clothing repeatedly during his regime. As for commoners, the dress code was also established in detail (Dalby; 1983 and 1993, Minnich; 1963, Sansom; 1963, Tanida and Koike; 1989).
Following the development of the samurai culture in the city of Edo, the population of common people also grew in both rural and urban areas. Merchants, the lowest class, gradually gained power by the eighteenth century and this led to the growth of the economy. The rich merchants were often employed by government officials and became richer than the samurai.Thanks to the economic prosperity, the standard of living among townspeople was improving. They enjoyed a peak of material wealth and a flourishing of the arts.
Considered in retrospect, the most attractive feature of this era is the gaiety of colour and pattern in clothing and decoration which reflected the mood of the times. It is an especially interesting aspect of the social history of Japan that the rise of a prosperous class of shopkeepers and craftsmen was accompanied by a lively creative phase in the arts (Sansom, 1963: 153).
This is called the Genroku era (1688-1704), in other words, ukiyo, or
"floating world." The word ukiyo stems from the Buddhist expression, and originally means "the dark, shifting world of existence, or transience of life." As society changed through the centuries, the meaning became "floating world." The novelist Ryoi initially used this term in his work, Ukiyo Monogatari,"Tales of the Floating World" (Williams, 1983). He describes the life in the early Edo era, that is, the ukiyo world.
The wealthy townspeople surrounding him were not worried about future salvation but rather enjoyed their materialistic, temporal existences and those pleasures appealing directly to the senses. They lived for the moment : "the fleeting moment" (Williams, 1983: 1).Many prominent art works were produced, and chonin bunka, culture of the townspeople, was fully developed in this period.
The Japanese tattoo
The Japanese tattoo is an ancient art. Haniwa, small clay figurines, some bearing facial tattoos, have been found in tombs that date from the fourth or fifth century. It is thought that the tattoo signified social rank or warded off evil spirits and wild animals. Over time, the custom faded and it became the fate of criminals, in the old Chinese manner, to be tattooed on the face as a form of punishment. It has been suggested that, in a society where ostracism is the most severe punishment, tattooing became a decorative art as people sought to hide these incriminating symbols of shame within more elaborate shapes and patterns.
Love and religion seem to have been significant inspiration for early Japanese tattoos. Lovers, courtesans and lowly prostitutes would often have the name of a lover written on the inner arm, with the kanji for inochi (life), symbolizing a pledge of eternal love, added. Edo period (1603-1867) literature abounds with references to pledge tattoos, or irebokuro as they were known.
A singular aspect of the Japanese tattoo is that, rather than being almost exclusively a mark of punishment or an element of ritual, it became an immensely popular fashion statement among working-class urbanites of the late 18th century to mid-19th century, despite a ban on tattoos from 1789 to 1801. That was when the tattoo found favor among the growing legions of laborers, rickshaw pullers, criminals, firefighters, artisans and women of the pleasure quarters. The designs flowered from simple messages, invocation or pledge into fuller pictorial forms capable of integrating complex secondary design motifs into a grander overall concept.
For the merchants and samurai who swarmed into the entertainment quarters of Edo, people who wore tattoos were an exotic sight. There were even tattoo exhibitions, with judges and prizes. Tattoos have never received official favor in Japan, however, and are still frowned upon in polite society. During the Edo period expressions of individuality among the masses were invariably interpreted as subversive, a potential cause of social unrest, and accordingly repressed. Tattooing was an obvious target for the government and it was frequently banned, although the bans were largely ignored.
The Japanese tattoo is closely akin to the Japanese woodblock print in design, coloring and techniques, and the popularity of artists like Utagawa Kunisada and Kitagawa Utamaro, who all vigorously depicted the figures of tattooed actors, courtesans and gods, and whose work had enormous appeal at all social levels, coincided with the blossoming of tattoo art among the plebeian masses. As the ukiyo-e woodblock print gradually acquired more color and complexity of design, so the motifs and pigments used in tattooing grew more ambitious and subtle.
Edo firefighters, colorful characters who might almost have stepped out of fiction themselves, were among the first to wear full-body tattoos-works that cover everything but hands, feet and head. Different groups of firefighters displayed different preferences in their tattoo designs, but all seem to have included a protective water symbol of some kind, usually a carp or water dragon. Although tattoos were still regarded with suspicion by the authorities and condemned as "deleterious to public morals," a newly affluent middle class, enthusiastic patrons in all fields of art, were showing much curiosity and appreciation of tattooing, though never going quite as far as to submit to one themselves.
With the opening of the country in the 1860s, renewed efforts were made to suppress tattooing. This time, the ban was not out of concern that personal liberties would encourage an uprising among the masses, but out of concern that the newly arriving emissaries from the West would denounce tattooing as barbaric. Tattoo artists suddenly found that, while their regular Japanese clientele had dried up, they were being asked to do tattoos on the very foreigners whom the authorities sought to protect.
Saturday, February 16, 2008
The contrasting national flowers of Japan and Korea
The Japanese Meteorological Agency can usually be counted on to nail their annual cherry blossom forecasts, and they were spot on again this year, too. The local TV station led off their dinner-hour news program earlier this week with an agency update reporting that the buds on the area’s cherries would start opening on the 25th. A walk in the park around the prefectural offices this morning confirmed that the trees had indeed begun to flower Over the next month, the media will continue to provide daily updates on the sakura zensen, or cherry blossom front, as the location of those areas with newly blooming trees moves gradually up the archipelago until the last of the flowers emerge for the spring in Hokkaido at the end of April.
It’s no surprise that the Japanese should get it right when the subject is cherries. Hanami, or parties for viewing cherry blossoms, first became popular among the aristocracy during the Heian period (8th to 12th centuries), and reached an extreme with Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the late 16th century. The custom spread among the common people during the Edo period, and it’s still a part of the annual cycle of events today. Everyone’s been to a hanami at least once.
Spend some time in Japan, and you’ll soon understand the reason; a park with cherry blossoms in full bloom is stunning in its loveliness. Is there any other country in which such a commonplace act as a picnic in the park is infused with such natural poetry? Yes, some at a hanami may drink too much and sing too loudly, but isn’t the purpose of a party to eat, drink, and be merry? Besides, the revelry seldom gets out of hand, and the Japanese have a knack for tuning out the neighbors when the occasion demands.
One reason the cherries have such a hold on the popular imagination is that their peak period of beauty is so brief. The entire season for the flowers lasts little longer than three weeks from beginning to end. For the Japanese, the cherries are a symbol of the impermanence of life, and they frequently use the word hakanai (short-lived, fleeting, transitory) to describe both the flowers and the evanescence of existence. In addition, the verb chiru, meaning to be scattered or fall, is used to describe the scattering of the cherry petals. In some instances, the same word also is used to mean death. Accounts of the Second World War often speak of the many young lives that “chiru” on the battlefield.
These ephemeral qualities are one facet of a fascinating contrast between the informal national flowers of Japan and Korea. While it may not occupy the same place in the Korean imagination as cherries do in Japan, the Rose of Sharon (mugunghwa in Korean, mukuge in Japanese) serves as a similar symbol. The cherry, as we’ve seen, is a fragile blossom that quickly reaches its peak and just as quickly disappears. The Rose of Sharon is the opposite. A hardy plant, it continues to bloom from June to October through the hottest months of summer, and each plant produces several thousand blossoms a year.
The Koreans are said to find this hardiness appealing. One adjective that often crops up in Japanese descriptions of Koreans is shibutoi—tenacious and enduring. Tenacity is an essential survival trait when you’re the runt in a neighborhood that includes the Chinese, Russians, Japanese, and Mongolians.
Korean references to the national flower date as far back as the Silla Kingdom, (57 BC-935 AD), which metaphorically referred to itself as Mugunghwa Country. The South Korean national anthem, Aegukga, has the line, “Mugunghwa filled three thousand li of splendid rivers and mountains…” (A li is roughly 2.44 miles, making this lyric an echo of the phrase about cherries in the old Japanese song Sakura, Sakura: “miwatasu kagiri”, or as far as the eyes can see.) One of the trains in the national railway is called the Mugunghwa. And in a good-humored touch, the Koreans use pictures of the mugunghwa flower rather than stars to rate hotels.
There is a theory in Japan that the cherry is so popular because the Japanese prefer flowers that are falling rather than flowers that are blooming. That would explain their love for the cherry—even a relatively mild breeze is enough to send a spray of petals floating like so much pink snow. When the cherry motif is used on television, such as a backdrop for the performance of a song, the blossoms are often shown fluttering to the ground, rather than in a static scene. The attraction for the Japanese is the brevity of the beauty, which contains an intrinsic poignancy and tension.
The meaning of the underlying Chinese characters for mugunghwa, however, is quite the opposite. The characters are 無窮, which is pronounced mukyu in Japanese. It means endless or eternal.
It’s no surprise that the Japanese should get it right when the subject is cherries. Hanami, or parties for viewing cherry blossoms, first became popular among the aristocracy during the Heian period (8th to 12th centuries), and reached an extreme with Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the late 16th century. The custom spread among the common people during the Edo period, and it’s still a part of the annual cycle of events today. Everyone’s been to a hanami at least once.
Spend some time in Japan, and you’ll soon understand the reason; a park with cherry blossoms in full bloom is stunning in its loveliness. Is there any other country in which such a commonplace act as a picnic in the park is infused with such natural poetry? Yes, some at a hanami may drink too much and sing too loudly, but isn’t the purpose of a party to eat, drink, and be merry? Besides, the revelry seldom gets out of hand, and the Japanese have a knack for tuning out the neighbors when the occasion demands.
One reason the cherries have such a hold on the popular imagination is that their peak period of beauty is so brief. The entire season for the flowers lasts little longer than three weeks from beginning to end. For the Japanese, the cherries are a symbol of the impermanence of life, and they frequently use the word hakanai (short-lived, fleeting, transitory) to describe both the flowers and the evanescence of existence. In addition, the verb chiru, meaning to be scattered or fall, is used to describe the scattering of the cherry petals. In some instances, the same word also is used to mean death. Accounts of the Second World War often speak of the many young lives that “chiru” on the battlefield.
These ephemeral qualities are one facet of a fascinating contrast between the informal national flowers of Japan and Korea. While it may not occupy the same place in the Korean imagination as cherries do in Japan, the Rose of Sharon (mugunghwa in Korean, mukuge in Japanese) serves as a similar symbol. The cherry, as we’ve seen, is a fragile blossom that quickly reaches its peak and just as quickly disappears. The Rose of Sharon is the opposite. A hardy plant, it continues to bloom from June to October through the hottest months of summer, and each plant produces several thousand blossoms a year.
The Koreans are said to find this hardiness appealing. One adjective that often crops up in Japanese descriptions of Koreans is shibutoi—tenacious and enduring. Tenacity is an essential survival trait when you’re the runt in a neighborhood that includes the Chinese, Russians, Japanese, and Mongolians.
Korean references to the national flower date as far back as the Silla Kingdom, (57 BC-935 AD), which metaphorically referred to itself as Mugunghwa Country. The South Korean national anthem, Aegukga, has the line, “Mugunghwa filled three thousand li of splendid rivers and mountains…” (A li is roughly 2.44 miles, making this lyric an echo of the phrase about cherries in the old Japanese song Sakura, Sakura: “miwatasu kagiri”, or as far as the eyes can see.) One of the trains in the national railway is called the Mugunghwa. And in a good-humored touch, the Koreans use pictures of the mugunghwa flower rather than stars to rate hotels.
There is a theory in Japan that the cherry is so popular because the Japanese prefer flowers that are falling rather than flowers that are blooming. That would explain their love for the cherry—even a relatively mild breeze is enough to send a spray of petals floating like so much pink snow. When the cherry motif is used on television, such as a backdrop for the performance of a song, the blossoms are often shown fluttering to the ground, rather than in a static scene. The attraction for the Japanese is the brevity of the beauty, which contains an intrinsic poignancy and tension.
The meaning of the underlying Chinese characters for mugunghwa, however, is quite the opposite. The characters are 無窮, which is pronounced mukyu in Japanese. It means endless or eternal.
Japanese Bra
Japanese Bra -title may seem to you similar to something like "Japanese Cat". Cats and pets have no similar nationality to people. So how can brassieres have? We could take a manufacturing standpoint, but it wouldn't be more interesting than talk about DVD players made in Japan.
Bra, by all it's appeal and spirit, is clearly a product from the west. Japan didn't know bra until Japanese started wearing western clothes, a change which happened sometimes during Meiji era. With wafuku, bras or any other western underwear wasn't used. With kimono, women wore only thin layer of cloth, which served the purpose of underwear that time. Under yukata, sometimes women didn't wear anything at all.
Japanese bras are said to be more decorative, more cute, and have sense of visual delight. They have tiny hearts to them, embroidiery and lace.
It is interesting that although Japan is the famous design country, the creator of latest trends that are copied by French and Italian designers, Japanese women are fairly shy to shop the cutting edge bloomy color bras you see in the shops.
It is interesting question, what kind of bra does Japanese women actually use in daily life.
In general, japanese bras seem to be more cute than sexy, more warm than cold. More childish than independent.
Compare a flower of sakura to a red rose. Sakura's scent is just a hint, an unobtrusive thought, while rose's scent is overwhelming, and something that seeks attention. Same goes with Japanese bra's color. Many Japanese women like simple white or pastel colors (or colour of sakura flower, why not). Some like black (like the branch of sakura tree). But it is rare to see heavy red, or yellow or other strong colors.
Some women find japanese bras to be more comfortable to the skin than western ones.
Japanese like to be graceful and same goes with their other clothing style. Japanese women feel they want to conform to the social concencus, the air around them. For same reason, Japanese women don't seem to wear strong parfume. This is also visible in the mainstream bra market. In contrary, Japan is one of the rare countries where it is not out of the ordinary to see women wearing fishnet stockings while shopping.
I remember reading an article of a foreign man who was overwhelmed to notice her girlfriend, a 35 years old office lady, wore a mickey mouse bra. He said it was like children's clothing, while his girlfriend saw nothing unordinary about it. Why not.
In Europe it is nothing out of the ordinary to see a couple going to lingerie shop. In Japan, I suspect people shop online. There are plenty of the shops, but mostly women go there alone.
Japan is different in the sense of bras as well. I wish Japan will keep into the various differences in the future as well.
Bra, by all it's appeal and spirit, is clearly a product from the west. Japan didn't know bra until Japanese started wearing western clothes, a change which happened sometimes during Meiji era. With wafuku, bras or any other western underwear wasn't used. With kimono, women wore only thin layer of cloth, which served the purpose of underwear that time. Under yukata, sometimes women didn't wear anything at all.
Japanese bras are said to be more decorative, more cute, and have sense of visual delight. They have tiny hearts to them, embroidiery and lace.
It is interesting that although Japan is the famous design country, the creator of latest trends that are copied by French and Italian designers, Japanese women are fairly shy to shop the cutting edge bloomy color bras you see in the shops.
It is interesting question, what kind of bra does Japanese women actually use in daily life.
In general, japanese bras seem to be more cute than sexy, more warm than cold. More childish than independent.
Compare a flower of sakura to a red rose. Sakura's scent is just a hint, an unobtrusive thought, while rose's scent is overwhelming, and something that seeks attention. Same goes with Japanese bra's color. Many Japanese women like simple white or pastel colors (or colour of sakura flower, why not). Some like black (like the branch of sakura tree). But it is rare to see heavy red, or yellow or other strong colors.
Some women find japanese bras to be more comfortable to the skin than western ones.
Japanese like to be graceful and same goes with their other clothing style. Japanese women feel they want to conform to the social concencus, the air around them. For same reason, Japanese women don't seem to wear strong parfume. This is also visible in the mainstream bra market. In contrary, Japan is one of the rare countries where it is not out of the ordinary to see women wearing fishnet stockings while shopping.
I remember reading an article of a foreign man who was overwhelmed to notice her girlfriend, a 35 years old office lady, wore a mickey mouse bra. He said it was like children's clothing, while his girlfriend saw nothing unordinary about it. Why not.
In Europe it is nothing out of the ordinary to see a couple going to lingerie shop. In Japan, I suspect people shop online. There are plenty of the shops, but mostly women go there alone.
Japan is different in the sense of bras as well. I wish Japan will keep into the various differences in the future as well.
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